References

This is a list of all references used in the Understanding Elements of Research Design Part 2 learning module. If you want to know more, look up any of them on the web!

[1] Andrade, Chittaranjan. 2018. “Internal, External, and Ecological Validity in Research Design, Conduct, and Evaluation.” Indian Journal of Psychological Medicine 40 (5): 498–99. https://doi.org/10.4103/IJPSYM.IJPSYM_334_18.

[2] Dunn, Peter K. 2024. 7 Internal Validity | Scientific Research and Methodology. Accessed May 28, 2025. https://bookdown.org/pkaldunn/SRM-Textbook/DesignInternal.html.

[3] “Identifying Variables - Let’s Talk Science.” 2022. March 4, 2022. https://letstalkscience.ca/educational-resources/backgrounders/identifying-variables

[4] Pourhoseingholi, Mohamad Amin, Ahmad Reza Baghestani, and Mohsen Vahedi. 2012. “How to Control Confounding Effects by Statistical Analysis.” Gastroenterology and Hepatology From Bed to Bench 5 (2): 79–83.

[5] Ilola, Eveliina. 2018. “A Beginner’s Guide to Confounding.” Students 4 Best Evidence (blog). October 1, 2018. https://s4be.cochrane.org/blog/2018/10/01/a-beginners-guide-to-confounding/.

[6] Labaree, Robert V. n.d. “Research Guides: Organizing Your Social Sciences Research Paper: Design Flaws to Avoid.” Research Guide. Accessed May 28, 2025. https://libguides.usc.edu/writingguide/designflaws.

[7] Pannucci, Christopher J., and Edwin G. Wilkins. 2010. “Identifying and Avoiding Bias in Research.” Plastic and Reconstructive Surgery 126 (2): 619–25. https://doi.org/10.1097/PRS.0b013e3181de24bc.

[8] Greenwald, Anthony, and Linda Krieger. 2006. “Implicit Bias: Scientific Foundations.” California Law Review 94 (July):945. https://doi.org/10.2307/20439056.

[9] Harvard T.H. Chan School of Public Health. N.d. “Understanding Unconscious Bias.” PDF File. Accessed May 28, 2025. https://content.sph.harvard.edu/wwwhsph/sites/2597/2022/06/Types-of-Bias-Ways-to-Manage-Bias_HANDOUT-1.pdf 

[10] Bekelman, Justin E., Yan Li, and Cary P. Gross. 2003. “Scope and Impact of Financial Conflicts of Interest in Biomedical Research: A Systematic Review.” JAMA 289 (4): 454–65. https://doi.org/10.1001/jama.289.4.454.

[11] Krimsky, Sheldon. 2005. “The Funding Effect in Science and its Implications for the Judiciary, 13 J. L. & Pol’y.” https://brooklynworks.brooklaw.edu/jlp/vol13/iss1/4

[12] Smith, Richard. 2005. “Medical Journals Are an Extension of the Marketing Arm of Pharmaceutical Companies.” PLoS Medicine 2 (5): e138. https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pmed.0020138.

[13] Ioannidis, John P. A. 2005. “Why Most Published Research Findings Are False.” PLoS Medicine 2 (8): e124. https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pmed.0020124.

[14] Popovic, Aleksandar, and Martin R. Huecker. 2025. “Study Bias.” In StatPearls. Treasure Island (FL): StatPearls Publishing. http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/books/NBK574513/.

[15] Šimundić, Ana-Maria. 2013. “Bias in Research.” Biochemia Medica 23 (1): 12–15. https://doi.org/10.11613/BM.2013.003.

[16] Lopez-Duran, Nestor. 2017. “Top 10 Mistakes in Research Participant Recruitment - Ripple Science.” June 12, 2017. https://www.ripplescience.com/top-10-mistakes-in-research-participant-recruitment/

[17] Laaksonen, Niina, Mia Bengtström, Anna Axelin, Juuso Blomster, Mika Scheinin, and Risto Huupponen. 2022. “Success and Failure Factors of Patient Recruitment for Industry-Sponsored Clinical Trials and the Role of the Electronic Health Records—a Qualitative Interview Study in the Nordic Countries.” Trials 23 (1): 385. https://doi.org/10.1186/s13063-022-06144-9.

[18] Yip, Sun Yee. 2024. “Positionality and Reflexivity: Negotiating Insider-Outsider Positions within and across Cultures.” International Journal of Research & Method in Education 47 (3): 222–32. https://doi.org/10.1080/1743727X.2023.2266375.

[19] Wilson, Caitlin, Gillian Janes, and Julia Williams. 2022. “Identity, Positionality and Reflexivity: Relevance and Application to Research Paramedics.” British Paramedic Journal 7 (2): 43–49. https://doi.org/10.29045/14784726.2022.09.7.2.43.

[20] Savin-Baden, Maggi, and Claire Howell Major. 2023. Qualitative Research: The Essential Guide to Theory and Practice. London: Routledge. https://doi.org/10.4324/9781003377986.

[21] Eggertson, Laura. 2010. “Lancet Retracts 12-Year-Old Article Linking Autism to MMR Vaccines.” CMAJ : Canadian Medical Association Journal 182 (4): E199–200. https://doi.org/10.1503/cmaj.109-3179.

[22] Allan, G. Michael, and Noah Ivers. 2010. “The Autism-Vaccine Story: Fiction and Deception?” Canadian Family Physician 56 (10): 1013.

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[23] Lee, Stephanie M. 2018. “Sliced and Diced: The inside Story of How an Ivy League Food Scientist Turned Shoddy Data into Viral Studies.” BuzzFeed News. February 25, 2018. https://www.buzzfeednews.com/article/stephaniemlee/brian-wansink-cornell-p-hacking.

[24]  Wansink, Brian, David R. Just, and Collin R. Payne. 2012. “Can Branding Improve School Lunches?” Archives of Pediatrics & Adolescent Medicine 166 (10): 967. https://doi.org/10.1001/archpediatrics.2012.999.

[25] “Notice of Retraction and Replacement. Wansink B, Just DR, Payne CR. Can Branding Improve School Lunches? Arch Pediatr Adolesc Med. 2012;166(10):967-968. Doi: 10.1001/Archpediatrics.2012.999.” 2017. JAMA Pediatrics, September. https://doi.org/10.1001/jamapediatrics.2017.3136.

[26] Gaertner, Katharina, Michael Teut, and Harald Walach. 2022. “Is Homeopathy Effective for Attention Deficit and Hyperactivity Disorder? A Meta-Analysis.” Pediatric Research, June. https://doi.org/10.1038/s41390-022-02127-3.

[27] Modlmeier, Andreas P., Kate L. Laskowski, Alex E. DeMarco, Anna Coleman, Katherine Zhao, Hayley A. Brittingham, Donna R. McDermott, and Jonathan N. Pruitt. 2014. “Persistent Social Interactions Beget More Pronounced Personalities in a Desert-Dwelling Social Spider.” Biology Letters 10 (8): 20140419. https://doi.org/10.1098/rsbl.2014.0419

[28] “Research Integrity - Summary of Findings Report (Dr. Jonathan Pruitt) - University Secretariat.” 2024. University Secretariat. 2024. https://secretariat.mcmaster.ca/home/policy-updates/reports/research-integrity-summary-of-findings-report-dr-jonathan-pruitt/.

Authors and designers of this learning module: Jason Yu, Dana Kukje Zada